Image Details
Caption: Figure 6.
Evolution of the loss ﹩{{ \mathcal L }}_{{\rm{MSE}}}﹩ as a function of epoch for training on the dark matter density field ρ (top) and the gravitational potential field ϕ (bottom). The training loss is shown as a blue solid line, while the validation loss is represented by an orange dashed line.
© 2026. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society.