Left panel: evolution of the radius of TOI-4010 b under atmospheric escape and thermal contraction, as described in Section 5.5. The solid lines show evolution under different starting envelope mass fractions of 1%, 2%, and 5%, and the shaded regions represent the uncertainties on each evaporation history, given the uncertainties in the planet’s parameters and the XUV emission history of its host star. The planet’s present-day age and radius are plotted as a red circle. Right panel: evolution of the envelope mass fraction of the gaseous atmosphere of TOI-4010 b, following the left panel.