Image Details
Caption: Figure 1.
Left: a cartoon illustrating the currents responsible for spacecraft charging. Right: an example Wind EL electron VDF showing both photoelectrons and ambient electrons. The solid black line shows a Maxwellian that well models the photoelectrons (adapted from Figure 1 in L. B. Wilson et al. 2023a). The spacecraft potential is not determined from a modeled Maxwellian, however.
© 2026. The Author(s). Published by the American Astronomical Society.