Illustrative time snapshots (columns) of four separate SPH simulations with different atmosphere mass fractions (rows), where the particle resolution is ∼10⁶ for all except f_atm = 0.01 where it is ∼10^6.5. Particles in the lower hemispheres of the colliding bodies are shown and are colored by their material types: target core (gray), mantle (orange), and atmosphere (blue), and impactor core (brown) and mantle (yellow). Green particles in the first column indicate those that ultimately become unbound (“lost”) from the system. Impact parameters are given in the first column with the simulation time in each panel referenced to t = 0 hrs being the point of first contact of the colliding bodies’ mantles. Atmospheric loss fractions are given in the final column. An animation of this figure is available in the online article. The 12 s animation spans simulation times from –0.97 to 9.0 hrs.

(An animation of this figure is available in the online article.)

(An animation of this figure is available.)

The video/animation of this figure is available in the online journal.